{"id":28161,"date":"2026-05-21T06:00:00","date_gmt":"2026-05-21T04:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.niku.no\/?p=28161"},"modified":"2026-05-21T14:34:17","modified_gmt":"2026-05-21T12:34:17","slug":"whalers-graves-on-svalbard-reveal-the-human-cost-behind-europes-first-oil-industry","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.niku.no\/en\/2026\/05\/whalers-graves-on-svalbard-reveal-the-human-cost-behind-europes-first-oil-industry\/","title":{"rendered":"Whalers\u2019 graves on Svalbard\u00a0reveal the human\u00a0cost\u00a0behind Europe\u2019s first oil industry"},"content":{"rendered":"\r\n
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\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\"Gravfelt<\/a>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\r\n\t\t\t\tSvalbard\u2019s largest burial site<\/span>\r\n\t\t\t\tLikneset, is the largest burial ground on the archipelago. Here, the remains of whalers have, until now, been well preserved in permafrost. These remains reveal much about the harsh lives of the whalers. Photo: Lise Loktu \/ Espen Olsen, Office of the Governor of Svalbard\t\t\t<\/figcaption>\r\n\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\r\n\r\n\t\t\t

Whalers\u2019 graves on Svalbard\u00a0reveal the human\u00a0cost\u00a0behind Europe\u2019s first oil industry<\/h1>\r\n\t\t
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Arkeologi<\/a> —<\/span> High North<\/a> —<\/span> Nordomr\u00e5dene<\/a> —<\/span> Nordomr\u00e5dene<\/a> —<\/span> Research<\/a> —<\/span> Svalbard<\/a><\/div>\t\t<\/div>\r\n\t\t\t\t
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A new study provides a rare insight into what early modern whaling in the Arctic actually did to the human body.<\/p>\n\t\t<\/div>\r\n\t\t

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Published

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About the studie<\/strong><\/p>\n

The article Skeletons in the Permafrost: Exploring Climate-Driven Heritage Loss and Occupational Health at the Early Modern Whaling Burial Site of Likneset, Svalbard<\/em><\/a> is written by Lise Loktu (Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage Research) and Elin Therese Br\u00f8dholt (Oslo University Hospital).<\/p>\n

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The research behind the study is funded by grants from the Svalbard Environmental Protection Fund and NIKU.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t<\/div>\n\t\n\n

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At the Likneset burial site in Smeerenburgfjorden on Svalbard, researchers from the Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage Research (NIKU) and Oslo University Hospital (OUS) have examined the remains of men who died during whaling in the 17th and 18th centuries. The skeletons show clear traces of heavy physical labor, a monotonous diet, disease, and long-term strain\u2014often from a very young age.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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\u201cSkeletons are a unique type of material because they give us access to the body as a historical archive. We can see how work, diet, disease, and labor migration have actually left their marks on the people who took part in whaling,\u201d says Lise Loktu<\/a>, researcher and project leader at NIKU.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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However, this unique material is now threatened by accelerating erosion and deterioration as a result of climate change on Svalbard.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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A rare window into the lives of whalers<\/strong> <\/h2>\n<\/div>\n\n\n
<\/a>
Researcher on cultural heritage in Svalbard<\/span>Lise Loktu is a researcher at NIKU\u2019s northern division and works, among other things, on preservation conditions in Svalbard.<br>Photo: NIKU<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n
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Likneset is the largest burial ground on Svalbard. Here, the remains of whalers are preserved in permafrost, along with textiles, wooden coffins, and other organic materials that rarely survive in archaeological contexts. This is now beginning to change. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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The study is based on analyses of 20 individuals excavated in three periods: 1985\u20131990, 2016, and 2019. This makes it possible to investigate both the health conditions of the individuals buried here and how preservation conditions at the site have changed over time. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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The material is particularly important because it tells us not only about death and burial in the Arctic, but also about working life, mobility, health, and lived experience during a period when European whaling developed into a major international industry. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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\u2013 \u201cWe have focused particularly on documenting pathology\u2014injuries and disease markers in the skeletons\u2014in order to understand how this industry affected their lives,\u201d says Loktu. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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A unique material in a European context<\/strong> <\/h2>\n<\/div>\n\n
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Early modern Arctic whaling was among Europe\u2019s first large-scale energy and resource industries. Before the fossil fuel era, whale oil was a highly sought-after commodity, used for lighting, heating, soap production, and lubrication. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

<\/a>
One of many graves<\/span>At Likneset, there are more than 200 whaler graves from the 17th and 18th centuries.<br>Photo: Lise Loktu\/Espen Olsen, Office of the Governor of Svalbard<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n
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Yet we still know surprisingly little about how this working life affected the people involved\u2014ordinary labourers whose lives are rarely documented in written sources. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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This is where the Likneset material stands out. Because the remains are so well preserved, researchers can study health, nutrition, labour, and life histories in a way that is rarely possible for this group. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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\u2013 \u201cThis is a rare material, also internationally. It allows us to investigate early modern working life at the level of the body itself. This makes the burial ground important not only for Svalbard research, but also for broader questions of labour, mobility, and health in Europe\u2019s early global economy,\u201d says Loktu. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

\"Vi<\/a>
The permafrost is thawing<\/span>Likneset is located along the coast, and until now the permafrost has protected the graves well. Climate change is beginning to alter this. Photo: Lise Loktu \/ Espen Olsen, Office of the Governor of Svalbard<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n
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Young bodies bear traces of hard and repetitive labour<\/strong> <\/h2>\n<\/div>\n\n
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The researchers identified extensive evidence of heavy and repetitive physical strain across large parts of the skeleton. Particularly pronounced wear is found in the shoulders, upper arms, clavicles, chest, spine, hips, knees, and feet. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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Many individuals show changes in the shoulders and upper chest, including stress markers at the clavicle, sternum, and shoulder joints. This suggests repeated heavy use of the upper body\u2014possibly linked to lifting, pulling, rowing, handling ropes, and other demanding physical tasks both on board and during whaling operations.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

\"Kragebein<\/a>
Clavicle<\/span>Many of the individuals show pronounced bone changes at the attachment points for the clavicular muscles, likely as a result of repeated and intense strain on the shoulder girdle through hard physical labor.<br>Photo: Lise Loktu, NIKU<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
\"Brystvirvler<\/a>
Thoracic vertebrae<\/span>The thoracic vertebrae show clear impressions and degenerative changes, likely caused by long-term strain, heavy physical labor, and wear on the spine.<br>Photo: Lise Loktu, NIKU<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n
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The spine also shows clear signs of strain. Several individuals exhibit degenerative changes, joint alterations, and vertebral damage typically associated with heavy and repetitive physical activity. These changes are not limited to older individuals, but are also present in young adults. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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\u2013 \u201cOne of the most striking aspects of the material is the age profile. These are not only older men with long lives behind them. Many died very young, yet still show clear signs of heavy strain, disease, and physical stress,\u201d says co-author Elin Therese Br\u00f8dholt, forensic anthropologist at OUS. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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Evidence of disease and deficiency<\/strong> <\/h2>\n<\/div>\n\n
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The researchers also found extensive signs of physiological stress and disease. Almost all individuals showed skeletal changes consistent with scurvy, a severe or recurring deficiency of vitamin C. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

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Analyzing skeletal material<\/span>Forensic anthropologist Elin T. Br\u00f8dholt analyzes skeletal material from the whaler graves at Likneset. Br\u00f8dholt is affiliated with the Institute of Forensic Medicine at Oslo University Hospital and has specialized expertise in diseases and injuries in skeletal remains.<br>Photo: Lise Loktu, NIKU<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
\"Skinne-<\/a>
Shows vitamin deficiency<\/span>Deformation of the tibia and fibula with marked inward angulation (knock knees\/genu valgum), likely caused by rickets and severe vitamin D deficiency during childhood.<br>Photo: Elin T. Br\u00f8dholt, NIKU<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
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Scurvy<\/span>The findings show that vitamin C deficiency was very widespread among the whalers on Svalbard. Around 95 percent of the individuals show signs of scurvy, including distinct dark discoloration on the long thigh bones.<br>Photo: Lise Loktu, NIKU<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n
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\u2013 \u201cThis was a well-known and feared condition among sailors and whalers at the time, and could lead to weakness, pain, bleeding, and in severe cases death,\u201d says Br\u00f8dholt. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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These findings point to nutritional stress likely linked to long sea voyages, a monotonous diet, and limited access to fresh food. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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In addition, dental evidence shows that many individuals experienced stress during childhood. More than half exhibited enamel defects\u2014small disruptions in tooth enamel that occur when the body is exposed to disease, malnutrition, or other severe stress during development. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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\u2013 \u201cTaken together, this paints a picture of men who worked under extreme conditions in the Arctic, but who in many cases also appear to have had difficult childhoods before they arrived there,\u201d says Br\u00f8dholt. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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The bodily cost of whaling<\/strong> <\/h2>\n<\/div>\n\n
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Arctic whaling must have been among the most demanding and hazardous maritime industries in Europe at the time. The work took place in cold, wind, and damp conditions, and involved heavy manual labour. Whales had to be located, hunted, towed, processed, and loaded under extreme conditions, often over long seasons. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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Many individuals show strain-related changes in multiple parts of the body simultaneously. This suggests that the wear was not caused by isolated injuries, but by a lifetime of repeated heavy labour. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

\"Bildet<\/a>
Back injuries<\/span>Many of the whalers show extensive degenerative changes in the spine as a result of prolonged and heavy physical labor and injuries, which are also seen in very young individuals.<br>Photo: Lise Loktu, NIKU<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
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Photo documentation<\/span>Here, Lise Loktu is seen documenting skeletal material from the whaler graves at Likneset through photography in connection with bioarchaeological analyses. Photo: Elin T. Br\u00f8dholt, NIKU<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
\"Hodeskalle<\/a>
Unique insight into the lives of whalers<\/span>Bioarchaeological and osteological analyses of the skeletal material from Likneset provide insight into the whalers\u2019 health, diet, diseases, injuries, workload, and living conditions in the Arctic in the 17th and 18th centuries. Photo: Lise Loktu, NIKU<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n
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\u2013 \u201cAlthough we can rarely identify a specific cause of death, the material suggests that many died in a state of considerable health vulnerability. It appears to be the combined effects of disease, nutritional deficiency, physical strain, and prolonged stress that shaped these bodies,\u201d says Br\u00f8dholt. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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A transnational workforce in the Arctic<\/strong> <\/h2>\n<\/div>\n\n
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The study also indicates that the individuals buried here did not necessarily belong to a single national group. Both historical sources and biomolecular analyses suggest that this was a transnational workforce, recruited from different parts of Europe. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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Preliminary isotope analyses from Likneset suggest that some individuals grew up in regions corresponding to present-day Netherlands, while others appear to have originated from Norwegian coastal areas, particularly along the western and northern coasts. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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This aligns well with what we know about early labour migration between Norway and the Netherlands during this period\u2014a history documented in written sources, but still only partially understood through archaeological and biological evidence. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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\u2013 \u201cThis makes the burial ground particularly interesting. We can see the outlines of a transnational workforce, where people from different parts of Europe met within a shared labour regime in the Arctic,\u201d says Loktu. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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A unique archive now at risk of disappearing<\/strong> <\/h2>\n<\/div>\n\n
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At the same time, the study shows that this unique material is under pressure. Comparisons between excavations from the 1980s and more recent investigations show that textiles and other organic materials are now far less well preserved. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

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Changing preservation conditions<\/span>This image is from 1985. At that time, the clothing in which the whalers were buried was still exceptionally well preserved. Photo: Dag N\u00e6vestad, Troms\u00f8 Museum<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
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Climate change leads to degradation<\/span>A close-up of textiles from the same area of the burial site as above, from 2016, shows that the material has undergone rapid deterioration. Photo: Arild Viv\u00e5s, Office of the Governor of Svalbard<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n
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Increasing evidence shows that thawing permafrost, reduced sea ice, and increased precipitation are accelerating coastal erosion and destroying cultural heritage sites. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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\u2013 \u201cWhen these graves deteriorate, we lose an entire archive of human lives, health, labour, and mobility in the past\u2014an archive that is rarely preserved elsewhere,\u201d says Loktu. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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Must be included in climate and management strategies<\/strong> <\/h2>\n<\/div>\n\n
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While environmental change in the Arctic is closely monitored, cultural heritage has long occupied a more peripheral position in research, management, and policy. This is problematic, the researchers argue, because such sites provide unique insights into both past societies and ongoing environmental change. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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Likneset demonstrates how quickly such archives can be lost\u2014and how much they still have to tell. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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\u2013 \u201cCultural heritage on Svalbard must be far more integrated into climate work and political priorities. Otherwise, we risk losing some of the most unique sources we have for understanding both human history and the consequences of climate change in the Arctic,\u201d says Loktu. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n

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